Egypt With Omar Sharif

There are no more famous ancient sites within Egypt, or for that matter elsewhere in the world, than the Great Pyramids at Giza. They are, without question, the icon most associated with Egypt. They have been both the main destination for tourists, and a source of imaginative thought to the world for over four thousand years.

However, there are actually over 100 pyramids in Egypt, many of which are relatively unknown to anyone who is not an ancient Egypt enthusiast. All but a very few are grouped around and near the City of Cairo, just south of the Nile Delta. Otherwise, only one royal pyramid is known in southern Egypt (at Abydos), that being the one built by Ahmose, founder of the 18th Dynasty and Egypt's New Kingdom. It may have also been the last royal pyramid built in Egypt.

Hence, major pyramids were not built throughout Egypt's ancient history. The Pyramid Age began with a burst of building, starting with the 3rd Dynasty reign of Djoser. Some of the early kings, most specifically Snefru, built more than one pyramid. Almost all of the kings added to their number through the end of the Middle Kingdom, with the possible exception of the First Intermediate Period between the Old and Middle Kingdoms. After the first Pharaoh of Egypt's New Kingdom, Ahmose, royal pyramid building by Egyptians ceased entirely. Somewhat abruptly the kings of the New Kingdom chose, rather than making their tombs completely obvious, to hide them in the hills of the West Bank of Thebes (modern Luxor).

However, smaller pyramids were constructed, for example in the Deir el-Medina necropolis, by private individuals. The Late Period Nubians who ruled Egypt also built relatively small pyramids with much steeper sides, though these were in fact constructed in Nubia itself. This tradition was carried on in Nubia after these southern rulers lost control of Egypt, and eventually, more pyramids were actually built in Nubia than Egypt, though on a much smaller scale.

Other pyramids in the world certainly exist, but their purpose, for the most part, was different than those of ancient Egypt. The most famous outside Egypt are probably those located in Mexico and to the south of Mexico, but these appear to have been built more as temples. In Egypt, all but a select few of the pyramids were built as tombs, sometimes to hold the physical body of a pharaoh (as well as other individuals), or to hold the soul of the deceased (as in the case of the small cult pyramids built next to the larger ones). Otherwise, the purpose of only a few small, regional stepped pyramids remains elusive.

While pyramids were, for the most part, tombs for the Pharaohs of Egypt, one must nevertheless question the reason that Egyptian rulers chose this particular shape, and for that matter, why they built them so large. Today, we believe that they chose the shape in order to mimic the Benben, a pyramid shaped stone found in the earliest of temples, which itself is thought to symbolize the primeval mound from which the Egyptians believed life emerged. This also connected the pyramid to Re, the Sun God, as it was he, according to some of the ancient Egypt mythology, who rose from the primeval mound to create life.

As far the great size of many of the pyramids in Egypt, we can really only surmise that the Pharaohs were making a statement about their own power and perhaps, about the glory and strength of their country. However, it should also be remembered that many of the latter pyramids were not nearly as large as the Great Pyramids at Giza (and elsewhere).

Pyramids evolved. The first of them was not a perfectly formed pyramid. In fact, the first Pyramid we believe that was built in Egypt, that of Djoser, was not a true pyramid at all with smooth sides and a point at the top. Rather, its sides were stepped, and the top of the pyramid truncated with a flat surface (as best we know). As the Egyptian pyramids evolved, there were failures as well glorious failures until finally, they got it right with what was probably the first smooth sided true pyramid built at Meidum. In fact, pyramids continued to evolve throughout their history, perhaps not always in outward appearances, but in the way that they were built and in the theology surrounding their construction. For example, towards the latter part of Egypt's Pyramid Age, Osirian beliefs seem to have had more and more impact on the arrangement and layout of the subterranean chambers.

However, soon after the first pyramids were built, their form became somewhat standardized. Royal pyramid complexes included the main pyramid, a courtyard surrounding the main pyramid, a much smaller cult pyramid for the king's soul, a mortuary temple situated next to the main pyramid, an enclosure wall and a causeway that led down to a valley temple. Some pyramid complexes included subsidiary, smaller pyramids for family members, and most were surrounded by some sort of tombs for family members.

Our thinking on pyramids has evolved considerably over the years. Many of us who are a bit older were taught that the pyramids were built using Jewish slave labor, which is a fabrication of immense proportions. Most of the pyramids were built long before the Jews made their appearance historically and currently, many if not most scholars believe they were not built using slave labor at all (or perhaps a nominal number of slaves).

Otherwise, we can also dismiss offhand alternative theories related to aliens or some lost culture being responsible for pyramid building. There is just far too much evidence, including tools, drawings, evolutionary changes, and even worker villages that rule these farfetched ideas obsolete.

However, some mysteries remain, even in some of the best well known Pyramids. The most famous of them all, the Great Pyramid of Khufu, continues, year after year, to give up a few more secrets, and there doubtless remains much to learn from these Egyptian treasures. There may even be one or more pyramids yet to be discovered.

Theories of pyramid construction

The pharaohs left behind a monumental testimony of their kingship-the pyramids. The greatest of all 97 pyramids in Egypt belongs to Khufu. It has lost little from its original height of 146m and width of 230m formed by 2.3 million limestone blocks. Each angle measures precisely 51degrees 52'. These impressive statistics become even more extraordinary when we remember that this building feat was accomplished approximately 4500 years ago.

The massive labour force required to build a pyramid came under the direction of one man, the overseer of all the king's works. His task necessitated that he be a man of science, a man of architecture, and a man of authority.

His first decision was critical: Where should the monument be located? Tradition required that the site be on the west side of the Nile while practical considerations required that the site have an ample supply of limestone for the pyramid's core.

Most pyramids can be found in the 40km stretch of western desert that runs Northwest and Southeast from a mid-point near Memphis, Egypt's earliest capital set in the fertile floodplain. In this stretch of land, high above the floodplain on the natural rises at the desert edge, are the Old Kingdom sites of Giza, Abusir, Saqqara, Dahshur, Meidum, Abu-Rawash, and Zawyet el-Arian. Here, the geological formations provide a natural support for the massive platforms upon which the pyramids rest. Sites of the Middle Kingdom are located further South, near the entrance to the Fayoum.

Next, the overseer must establish the quarry, supply ramp, harbour and settlement. The quarry supplied the stone for most of the pyramid's bulk; the supply ramp aided the transport of stone onto the pyramid as it rose; the harbour brought in non-local materials such as the fine white limestone for the outer. casing or the granite for the burial chamber and the temple; and the settlement housed what must have been thousands, if not tens of thousands, of workmen required for the project. Each of these elements had to be placed in the natural terrain in such a way as to ensure efficient flow of men and materials.

In assessing this monumental project, remember that this was a national project for all of Egypt. Everyone had to help and each household had to provide either food or manpower to contribute to the project's 'completion.

When completed, the pyramid complex incorporated several different architectural elements, all integral to the pharaoh's journey into the afterlife.

Using the pyramid of Khufu as an example, we can explore the decision-making processes of an archaeologist who tries to locate the pyramid's quarry. Our survey begins on the east side. This location, we discover,. is not suitable for the quarry because we find tombs built here in year 12 of Khufu's reign. More tombs, begun in year 5, negate the use of the area to the West as well. North of the pyramid, we find no evidence of a quarry. Turning our attention to the South, we find a boat pit dated to the reign of Djedefre and tombs dated to the reign of Menkaure. Both kings ruled after Khufu; therefore, this area was clear during Khufu's reign, and was the probable location for his ramp. On the south side we usually find subsidiary pyramids, but Khufu's overseer set his subsidiary pyramids on the East. This is further evidence that he wanted the area clear for the construction of the ramp.

So Khufu's overseer chose a quarry site low on the Giza plateau, about 750m due South of the pyramid site. This area supplied nicely layered stones suitable for the pyramid's large building, blocks. As the pyramid rose, the quarry basin grew deeper and its sides aligned with those of the pyramid.

Later overseers, such those of Dynasties V, VI and the Middle Kingdom, did not require such large quarries because their pyramids have cores of mostly stone rubble or mud-brick. But the Great Pyramid of Khufu contains 2.6 million cubic metres of stone, mostly cut from the Giza quarry.

How was this massive edifice constructed? This question has intrigued Egyptologists for centuries. Perhaps the most inventive and imaginative idea relies on alien assistance. A more down-to-earth explanation, based on archaeological evidence, proposes the use of a ramp. This hypothesis, however, does not make our understanding of the construction process any less complicated.

There are two basic proposals: a straight ramp or a spiral ramp. Both present their own puzzles. The first theory proposes a single large ramp sloping up against one face of the pyramid. This proposal has the advantage that all four comers and the three sides of the pyramid remain clear during the construction, allowing builders to monitor and check the rise of the sides and the diagonals. Careful surveying during construction was-essential; otherwise, a "twist" might occur and the lines would not meet at a point. There are two problems with this proposal. First, to obtain a functionally low slope-one that rises one metre every six metres - the ramp would have to be extremely long extending over and beyond the quarry. Every time a rise in height was desired, the ramp's length would need to be increased to maintain this slope. Also, this process would cause all work on the pyramid to stop because the design does not allow for the concurrent construction of both pyramid and ramp.

Another theory postulates a ramp spiralling around the pyramid in some way. The most popular form of this idea has a ramp starting at each comer to create four ramps spiralling upwards and resting on the unfinished outer casing blocks for support. These blocks would be smoothed as the ramps were dismantled after the apex. of the pyramid had been reached. This theory leaves most of the pyramid's face clear during construction for checking fines and comers. It also solves the problem of covering the quarry and delivery areas, because the ramps remain confined to the pyramid's immediate area. Nonetheless, it has problems. First, the unfinished faces of the pyramid could not support the ramps which these theorists believe were made of mud-brick or debris. Also, a spiralling ramp increases the distance over which the blocks had to be hauled and creates unnecessary strain. for the team pulling each multi-tonne block on extended ropes as they try to turn the ramp's sharp comers around the pyramid's diagonals.

Mud brick ramp

A compromise between these two principal ideas, suggested by Mark Lehner, proposes a ramp starting at the mouth of the quarry and facing the pyramid. From here it rises to about 30m above the pyramid's base at its southwest comer. The ramp would, lean against the pyramid's face s as they rose-like accretion. layers wrapped around the pyramid with a roadway on top. Unlike the previous theory, the weight of these ramps is borne by the ground around the pyramid. Traffic could move along the top of this great accretion or envelope as both pyramid and ramp rose in tandem. The top of the pyramid could be reached with only one and one-quarter turns. The slope would rise with each turn from a reasonable 6.5 degrees for the first section from the quarry to as much as 18 degrees for the last rise to the apex. Although this last rise may seem too steep, the last part would be only about 40m long, and the number and size of the blocks would be much smaller-at two-thirds its height, the pyramid is already about 90% complete. The advantage of this proposal is a ramp that would extend

from the quarry to the top of the pyramid in the shortest possible distance. It would rest against the faces of the pyramid but. would not weigh upon them. This theory has two distracting questions. First , the ramp as a great envelope would cloak the faces of the pyramid as it rose; therefore, how could the workmen check their lines and angles? Secondly, how could the material of the ramp rise to a height of 146.5m without collapsing?

This leads to another question-what is the fabric of the ramp? Most writings on the subject assume that mud-bricks were used; but a mud-brick construction as massive as the pyramid's supply ramp would leave behind. great stains or deposits of mud that do not exist in the area South of Khufu's pyramid. This area and the great quarry are, however, filled with millions of cubic meters of a particular kind of debris: limestone chips, gypsum, and a calcareous clay called tafla. This must be the material from which the main supply ramp was constructed. It was pushed away as the pyramid was finished and the ramp dismantled. It filled the quarried area and perhaps some of the settlement area further to the South. Recently, our excavations in this area revealed two sections of the ramp that prove that it proceeded from the quarry to the southwest corner of the pyramid and that it was made of stone rubble and tafla.

Now that we know the location of the quarry and the material of the ramp, we have partly solved the puzzle of the ramp and pyramid construction. Specialists, such as structural engineers and those who study soil mechanics, are needed to assess the various proposals and study other construction possibilities for the pyramid.

The great wadi between the pyramid plateau and the southern rise of the Maadi formulation must have been the delivery lane for bringing material, such as granite, basalt, alabaster and fine Tura limestone, to the construction site. The harbour, therefore, must lay buried at the mouth of the wadi. Our early excavations detected the harbour and more recently we found a basalt wall about 800m South of Khufu's lower temple which could. be, the harbour wall. Another huge wall, known. as Heit el-Ghorab, "The Wall of the Crow", is built of limestone blocks as big as those in the pyramids. It extends from the mouth of the wadi and may have boarded the harbour. There is a great gate in the wall that may be the main entrance for the workmen's area.

So far, our questions sought to understand the larger elements of pyramid construction and the organization on the Giza plateau for building Khufu's pyramid. There remain other puzzles about the details of the building itself. For example, Khufu's pyramid is a nearly perfect square at its base and it is accurately oriented to true North while the north side of its 13.5 square acre base is off true level from the South by a scant 2.5cm - how did the ancient builders achieve such accuracy?

Many theories and debates raged while. the actual evidence lay ignored at the bases of Khufu's and Chephren's pyramids. Around the pyramids we find a series of holes, each about the size of a dinner plate. Set at regular intervals, they form fines which run parallel to the sides of the pyramids. These must be for stakes that carried a line used as a reference by the builders as they formed the base of the Khufu's pyramid from blocks of limestone, or, in the case of Chephren's pyramid, from granite. These 15-ton blocks are marked for the centre axes for the pyramid's faces and diagonals. There are also trenches that must be for the infusion and drainage of water during and after the leveling operations. The notion of a plumb fine from stakes to accurately align the bases of the pyramid is substantiated by evidence of similar lines and stakes used by the architect of a southern pyramid for Queen Henutsen.

The pyramids are slow to give up their secrets, but by carefully mapping and studying the ancient traces and clues that they have left for us we are gaining a better idea of the solutions to the puzzles.

who built the pyramids

Contrary to some popular depictions, the pyramid builders were not slaves or foreigners. Excavated skeletons show that they were Egyptians who lived in villages developed and overseen by the pharaoh's supervisors.

The builders' villages boasted bakers, butchers, brewers, granaries, houses, cemeteries, and probably even some sorts of health-care facilities—there is evidence of laborers surviving crushed or amputated limbs. Bakeries excavated near the Great Pyramids could have produced thousands of loaves of bread every week.

Some of the builders were permanent employees of the pharaoh. Others were conscripted for a limited time from local villages. Some may have been women: Although no depictions of women builders have been found, some female skeletons show wear that suggests they labored with heavy stone for long periods of time.

Graffiti indicates that at least some of these workers took pride in their work, calling their teams "Friends of Khufu," "Drunkards of Menkaure," and so on—names indicating allegiances to pharaohs.

An estimated 20,000 to 30,000 workers built the Pyramids at Giza over 80 years. Much of the work probably happened while the River Nile was flooded.

Huge limestone blocks could be floated from quarries right to the base of the Pyramids. The stones would likely then be polished by hand and pushed up ramps to their intended positions.

It took more than manual labor, though. Architects achieved an accurate pyramid shape by running ropes from the outer corners up to the planned summit, to make sure the stones were positioned correctly. And priests-astronomers helped choose the pyramids' sites and orientations, so that they would be on the appropriate axis in relation to sacred constellations.

From stone pusher to priest, every worker would likely have recognized his or her role in continuing the life-and-death cycle of the pharaohs, and thereby in perpetuating the glory of Egypt.

why a pyramid shape

The pyramid shape is associated with the sun god Re, symbolized by the phoenix. The phoenix, or bnw in hieroglyphic was worshipped at On, a place the Greeks called Heliopolis. As the quintessence of Re, the bird stood above the bnbn which is the exact shape of the pyramid and referred to as a pyramidion.

The bird's connection with the bnbn also links it with the obelisk. From atop the obelisk, the bnbn welcomed the rise of the sun god every morning. So it, too, became a symbol of Re. From the obelisk's bnbn, the pyramid takes its shape.

The Pyramid Texts explain that the deceased king used the sun's rays as a ramp to ascend to the sky. The sun would strengthened its beams to support the king on its celestial stair. Hence, the pyramid provided the only means for the pharaoh to take himself from the terrestrial world to the celestial world. This is also explains the step pyramid as a staircase or "ascent" to the sky.. The pyramid is truly a huge bnbn or pyramidion.

The pyramid form may also represent the primordial mound from which the universal god Re created this world. kings lie buried beneath this symbolic mound of creation except for Snofru and Khufu. This change was due to religious belief. It seems that Khufu became Re in his lifetime because his pyramid is called Akhet-Khufu, or "The Horizon of Khufu." This name indicates that Khufu was the equivalent of Re who sits and rises each day on the horizon. furthermore, Khufu's sons and immediate successors, Djedefre and Khafre were the first kings to bear the title S3RC, "son of Re." This dearly points to their father, Khufu as Re. There are also many architectural components in Khufu's pyramid complex designed to accommodate the need for this cult, such as the enlargement of Khufu's upper temple, five boat pits and the burial chamber within the pyramid or the ben-ben which identifies the king with Re because the king is actually Re rising above the horizon.

No clear consensus exists among Egyptologists about the function of the pyramid complex. Some suggest that the complex was used for the burial procession of the king and that the lower temple was used for the mummification ritual and process. To support their theories they use evidence that is not related to the royal cult, such as parallels with scenes from private tombs or analysis of the Pyramid Texts, which record religious belief but do not contain any information about the pyramid's actual function.

We can discuss the function using the Giza pyramid complexes as evidence- they are the best excavated, best documented and best studied of all the royal pyramid sites.

First, many architectural features in the temples of the Dynasties IV-VI do not agree with the theory that the pyramid complex was used for the king's funeral procession. For example, the doors of the upper temples that lead to the pyramid courts are too narrow to have allowed the king's coffin and the funeral procession to pass through to the burial chamber inside the pyramid.

Also, the layout of the Old Kingdom causeway does not indicate that it was necessarily a ceremonial way for the procession of the king. Furthermore, the lower temples do not appear to have been designed for either the rituals or the process of mummification. The holes on the roof of the lower temple. of Khafre are not, as suggested by several Egyptologists, for the poles of the washing tent; rather, they are associated with the construction of the temple. The ground plan, wall reliefs, cult objects, and statuary programs found in the lower temple do not indicate any association with the process or ritual, or mummification.

If previous theories regarding the function of the pyramid complexes are called into doubt, what then might be a more logical explanation of their function?

Many Egyptologists believe that the pyramid temples served to promote the corporeal afterlife of the deceased king through the mortuary cult, as well as the continuance of his kingship, his victories over his enemies, and his deification. This theory is more in line with the archaeological evidence of the Old Kingdom pyramid complexes.

Study of the various elements of the complexes can reveal the function. This evidence is abundant, comprising: the architectural components such as the upper and lower temples, the causeways and the pyramids themselves in comparison with other Old Kingdom complexes; the programme of the wall reliefs in Dynasties V and VI; the statuary programme of the upper and lower temples; the programme of cult objects; and, lastly, the texts related to the personnel of the cult and other archaeological remains. The pyramid complex of Khafre is a good example for the study of the architecture program; the pyramid complexes of Khufu, Sahure, Neferefre and. Pepi II are perfect for the study of the wall reliefs; the pyramid complex of Menkaure and Neferefre for the study of the. statuary programme, and finally Abusir provides the only Old Kingdom papyrus that explains the daily service in Egyptian temples.

The relationships between these different programmes and building function are evident as well. For instance, some subjects for wall reliefs are presumably typical of palaces (e.g., dominating scenes, perhaps those showing the king with gods, and the Sed festival scenes), and are also found in temples. On the other hand, temple walls bear scenes of the gods giving offerings to the king; such offering scenes do not appear in palaces. Regarding the statuary programme, clearly statues adorned both palaces and temples. The Sed festival takes place in the palace, while there is a Sed court in the pyramid complex. This suggests that the pyramid complex is a ritual palace closely linked with the ceremonial palace. Personnel for the complex fall into two groups: the cult priests who serve the temple and the administrative body that runs. the funerary establishment as a great palace complex. This evidence tallies to the conclusion that the pyramid complex must be considered a combination of a temple and a palace.

Thus, this analysis of the programmes shows that the pyramid complex was not built for the funeral Procession of the king, nor was the lower temple used for the mummification process, as believed by the majority of scholars. The mummification of the king's body was done in the royal workshop while the ritual mummification was conducted in a purification tent set outside the lower temple. The funeral procession of the king went outside the pyramid complex and reached the burial chamber of the pyramid through the pyramid court.

So the pyramid complex functions as much as a palace as it does a temple. The architecture and decorative programmes as well as other evidence show that the king as Horus and Re is worshipped inside the temples, and that the whole complex is created to worship the triad of Re, Horus, and Hathor and to celebrate the myth of the kingship.